The United Kingdom is culturally diverse and this is an additional and salient factor within the larger issue of urban schooling. It has also been suggested that a school is, in itself also a cultural phenomenon. There are modes of behaviour, rules to follow, expectations, means of survival and success, a hierarchy and a value system. Another factor is the differing needs of the students themselves. Even without the presence of a learning disability or special need, students do assimilate and understand information differently. Teachers today, face the difficult task of taking these needs into account and adjusting lesson plans accordingly. Finally, there are always regional and national standards to be adhered to. 

     Urban schools are not only about the schools themselves, but also the communities in which they exist. To some degree, these communities maintain a symbiotic relationship with their schools. The schools rely on the communities to support them and take an interest in the education of Britain’s youth, while the communities look to the schools to create generations of educated youth prepared to take on leadership roles in the coming years. Schools are also responsible for identifying and dealing with barriers to children’s education in the urban environment. 

     For many schools, this is a distinct challenge as many of their students may come from impoverished homes, backgrounds of abuse and other personal difficulties. In addition, schools may lack the funding to create and initiate the programs they believe can empower their specific student population. According to a report by the National College for School Leadership states that school leadership in the UK must address six specific issues. These are adopting an optimistic attitude and refusing to give up on finding solutions to even the most difficult problems, build capacity within their school and rotate responsibilities, adopt and maintain a vision for the school, be a constant and active force of encouragement – seek higher benchmarks and goals whenever possible, ensure teachers have everything they need to do their job in the classroom and minimalize risk by taking the blame for school mistakes.

     To understand and analyze the challenges in the urban school is to first acknowledge the power of the school itself. It is an environment that provides young people with their primary force of socialization for twelve years of their lives. It is during these formative years that children learn how to socialize, understand and analyze information, identify and strive for constant and changing goals and arrive at an understanding of who they are in this world. One of the primary challenges to those schools that exist in communities designated as ‘neighbourhood renewal areas’ (NRA). The National College for School Leadership (NCSL) reports that “Schools in neighbourhood renewal areas (NRAs), for example, have three times as many children in poverty as the national average. On average their communities have 30 per cent higher mortality rates and three times as much burglary. Schools in NRAs often face very low attainment on entry and may have high numbers of pupils on the at-risk register”. 

     One of the key questions the NCSL reports asks is whether or not the same style of leadership would work in any school regardless of the distinct challenges they face. Or, do specific urban challenges and circumstances require different responses in leadership and policy? While certain communities and schools may experience similarities in certain aspects, schools tend to be unique and the social context in which they exist presents each school with its own specific challenges. The NCSL report suggests that one element in leadership is elementary no matter what the specific challenges are and no matter what social context the school exists in. This element is the ability of the school leadership to cope with their unique pressures with a certain ‘can do’ attitude and the specific ability to understand the community in which it exists and their unique needs. “Perhaps most important is an ability to read the community itself, adapting the style and content of provision to local needs and opening up appropriate channels of communication. The capacity to recognize and respond to differences is perhaps the common factor”.

     Research conducted by Grossman, Walker and Raley (date?) suggests that one of the ways in which school leadership and policymakers can positively affect students in urban schools is to ensure support for effective after-school programs. Many children are left on their own for long periods of time once school ends. This leaves them with a great deal of ‘disposable time’ which they can either use positively or not. After-school programs provide urban youth with opportunities to continue expanding themselves academically and socially. One of the main advantages to after-school programs is the fact that all students can access them. This is in contrast to other programs such as the Boys and Girls Club or Scouts which are not universally available and especially not in poor neighborhoods. “ […] school based, after-school programs are increasingly becoming the solution policymakers suggest for all sorts of youth problems—poor academic achievement, gang participation, violence and drug use” .  These authors temper their enthusiasm with one cautionary stipulation – policymakers and school administrators must identify the potential of these programs with the reality of what they can provide. Therefore, one of the important decisions to be made is not only what programs to put into place but to first identify programs which meet the specific needs of their students. As such, schools need to decide not only if they want to create after-school programs but if they have the funds, space, staff/expertise and resources in order to ensure their program(s) will be successful. 

      Policymakers and leaders must make decisions about how to use schools as positive environments for children in these areas. They must decide how to allocate the money and resources in order to create programs that will support and empower these children. In addition, school administrators must specifically know the community resources in order to help students in extreme distress. One of the roles that urban schools fulfill is that of an emotional support. Teachers, administrators often find themselves in the role of ‘counsellor’ in the absence of funds for a school psychologist. Students who live in distressed areas often need a shoulder to cry on, or simply someone to talk to. They face tremendous pressure at home and are often coping with situations that are far beyond their emotional capabilities.

      The practicality of living in difficult urban environments often generates a certain disenchantment with and disenfranchisement from education. Families coping with issues such as chronic unemployment, poverty, poor health and unstable living environments often view the importance of education with great skepticism. To families facing these problems, their children’s education can take a back seat to basic survival. Thus, the social context for these families is one in which education is less important than being able to provide the basic necessities of life – something which they can’t achieve. It is therefore understandable how children in these families also view educational success and academic achievement as a distant and oftentimes meaningless goal. Yet, as the NCSL points out, even schools in these seemingly impossible environments find the means to be successful. “There is a strong body of evidence that schools in challenging circumstances can raise standards, and that this occurs when initiatives take account of their unique circumstances and take a people-centred approach to change – distributing leadership across the school community”.

     Grossman, Walker and Raley (2006) report that after-school programs have been identified as the Extended-Service Schools (ESS) Adaptation Initiative.  In the UK there are approximately sixty ESS programs in over seventeen cities. One of the key parameters of this initiative is that it not only acknowledges the challenge of urban schooling but also the social context within which this schooling takes place. “ESS’s design intentionally embodies both model and city-level variations so the initiative and its accompanying evaluation can examine after-school programs in very different contexts. […] and offers an opportunity to identify the underlying issues involved in providing these programs, whatever the model and the local contexts in which they operate”. 

     One of the strategies to address the challenges faced by urban schools is the initiative known as ‘the London Challenge’. “Through the London Challenge, since 2002, we have learnt more still about the context in which London schools work, the needs of different students, and the unique combination of challenges this produces”.  The Minister for Education and Skills, Stephen Twigg has served as the head of this initiative since 2002. In his 2005 report, he addresses the specific social context of urban schools and describes the ways in which they have unique needs and why this strategy is so valuable. 

Urban schools are in distinctly different circumstances from other schools in England. They often face greater challenges of deprivation and need to respond to shifting populations. Their more diverse pupil population can be a huge strength but may mean that teachers need more skill, for example to respond to different language needs. Urban areas often also have vast cultural resources on which to draw, which can benefit schools.

      He points out that urban schools tend to have larger populations of students who come from poor socioeconomic backgrounds, yet at the same time they are far more ethnically diverse. The Minister’s report stresses the fact that this cultural mix represents both an opportunity for students to learn a great deal about various cultures from one another. At the same time however, it also generates a challenge for teachers and administrators who must learn how to understand the various cultural beliefs and value systems and be prepared to respond and communicate accordingly. In addition, the Minister addresses the key issue of leadership. He opines that strong educational leadership embodies the ability to harness the talents of not only the school staff but area agencies which can provide the type of additional support that many students in urban centers require. In this way, the school takes advantage of its community resources and at the same time becomes an integral part of that community. School leaders/administrators must know how to work in partnership with these agencies and how to partner with them appropriately. Another successful strategy for school leaders is to take advantage of partnering with other schools. He points out that several London boroughs have collaborated to form the ‘London Grid for Learning’ “[…] which has developed ICT across the curriculum and promoted the integration of ICT into whole school improvement strategies”.

      The Department for International Development’s (DFID) Enabling Effective Support (EES) points out that one of the key issues for all urban schools is the new social context that is known internationally as ‘globalisation’. Their report stresses that urban schools today are one of the best examples of the global village in which we live. Children today are not only exposed to a broad range of cultural ideas, values and beliefs, but they have access to an infinite amount of information due to the fact that we live in a highly inter-connected world. This is not simply a reference to the Internet but to the fact that we travel more widely than ever before, people come into our countries from unexpected places and information travels faster than it ever did in human history. 

      Urban schools are, to some degree, the small global village that children will experience on a much larger scale when they become adults and move into the world of work. Another factor is that many students in UK urban schools are individuals who have recently immigrated. Thus, their understanding of the educational system may be sparse and English might not be their primary language. Urban schools have this additional challenge and must devise ways of integrating these students while respecting their cultural backgrounds. As such, many of the UK’s urban schools must adopt a ‘global perspective’. In addition, they need to work with social service agencies, NGO’s, ethnic groups and a broad range of organizations in order to incorporate and adapt to this new perspective. The Department for International Development suggests specific strategies to deal with this. They include; curriculum development, improved access to resources for teachers, pilot projects to practice differing ways of being more inclusive and school networking across the regions in the UK.

      In a 2005 speech, David Miliband stated that urban living could be both challenging and exciting, yet it could also be somewhat bleak. Urban environments that have yet to face renewal efforts can be the most challenging as they are the poorest neighbourhoods in the UK. It is the children in these areas and these schools that often face some of the urban environments bleaker tendencies. This is where crime can be high, children can be witnesses to tremendous acts of violence, face periods of hunger, homelessness and other tragedies. These children live within the social context of loss and trauma. That is their urban environment. People who live in these environments can often feel hopeless in the face of these social, physical, emotional and economic barriers. This hopelessness can also translate into a sense of poor self-esteem and a lack of motivation. Thus, the urban environment can also be a mix of tremendous anger and frustration. To motivate children in these kinds of schools is one of the UK’s biggest challenges. According to Miliband one of the country’s greatest challenges is to regenerate and provide renewal for just such neighbourhoods. 

     Again, according to NCSL, the urban environment is often a hostile one and many of these communities are not only poor but apathetic towards education. In addition to trying to provide these students with a quality education, the headmaster often have numerous incidents to deal with especially in the more ‘troubled schools’. “ […] the urban difference lies in confident action despite ambiguity combined with a readiness to learn and adapt as more evidence arrives.  Further, this is not just about dealing with information but about interpersonal insights”. 

     The NCSL has gone beyond stating the problem. They have also identified what they believe are the core competencies required for strong leadership in urban schools with a high population of disadvantaged students. These competencies include the following: creating the future – has a vision for the school; leading, learning and teaching – takes responsibility for the quality of academia within the school; able to develop self and work with others; excellent managerial skills and always accountable. 

     The ‘London Challenge’ was a significant undertaking by the British government to improve educational standards in urban schools. This effort is governed by the Department of Education and Skills and is a highly ambitious program to generate the significant changes they see as absolutely essential to the educational system. “The Challenge has three levels: pan-London resources and programmes available to all schools;  Keys to Success provide individualised support to about 70 of the most disadvantaged schools; intensive work with five key London boroughs (Hackney, Islington, Haringey, Southwark and Lambeth) to help them reform their secondary school provision” (The London Challenge). 

     According to the government’s own report on this project, the results were as follows. “Results at GCSE have improved faster than in England as a whole. Between 2001 and 2005: the number of secondary schools with more than 55% of their students achieving five plus A*-C grades at GCSE increased from 142 to 195  GCSE results in the five key boroughs improved on average by 8 percentage points (over twice the national average)” (The London Challenge).

   A recent criticque on The London Challenge offers some valuable insights into the continued problem of disadvantaged students and urban schools. The criticque states that there is a growing disparity between the social classes in England, in particular between those who are wealthy and those who are disadvantaged. Unfortunately, this is leading to an increase in the country’s poverty rates and the problems that come with it. Within many of these poor communities, there is high turnover rate of both students and teachers. 

     Many teachers find the challenge of working in these urban schools too difficult for them. As a result, they leave in order to find a less difficult environment in which to work. At the same time, one of the great challenges is London’s ethnic diversity. “London’s students are highly diverse, coming from all over the world. Compared to less than 10% nationwide, nearly 50% of London’s primary and secondary students are of ethnic backgrounds such as Black Caribbean, Black African, Indian, and Pakistani⁵. In the greater London region, 32.1% of secondary school students and 37.4% of primary school students have English as an additional language^” (Lessons from the London Challenge).  This diversity presents a difficulty all its own. Teachers must be prepared to work with a diverse population of students who are also socially and economically disadvantaged. In addition, the educational system is new to them and thus, there must be both curricular changes and the ability to cope with such a broad spectrum of students needs. 

     Yet, there is still some hope from this model. In particular, one of the programs presents a positive step towards supporting strong and able leadership in London’s urban schools. The Consultant Leaders Programme works on the mentoring model in order to support the development of key skills necessary to provide strong leadership in these challenged schools. Participants attend seminars and workshops to develop and improve on key skills such as communication, decision-making, and establishing a positive relationship between teaching and learning. Another aspect of this model is the media awareness program. This part of the model brings a greater awareness of the educational system to the residents of London but also presents the educational system in a much more positive light. It highlights the success stories of the program which provides London residents with a sense of hope for the future of their students in ‘the system’.  

     The criticque is also careful however, to clarify that the full analysis of this program is incomplete. We do not yet have all the data on the program and therefore it may be too early to declare it an unmitigated success. 

Student test scores have improved, but this change cannot be directly attributed to the Challenge’s efforts, as a full evaluation has not yet been completed. Nonetheless, research is underway to study the Challenge and its programs that may provide a direct correlation between student achievement and the Challenge’s efforts. The Institute of Education is producing a booklet inspecting specific aspects of the Challenge, and further study subsequently will be conducted (The London Challenge (2006).

     The conclusion of this critique is that although there has been success as a result of this program, many of the core problems remain. One of these is the significant achievement gap between students from the majority culture and those from minority cultures. Another issue (which has been previously noted in this paper) is the fact of rising poverty in England and its presence in particular cultural groups and communities. While ‘The London Challenge’ is highly to be considered a successful project, at least to some degree, we must be cognizant of the fact that there are still urban schools that face significant challenges. 

     Leadership and policymakers cannot simply address these challenges by implementing one time only projects. While ‘The London Challenge’ certainly addressed some of the key issues, it is unlikely that a five year project can reverse or change all the problems that exist in London’s urban schools. First and foremost, policymakers must address the issue of the systemic problems/issues which exist in London society as a whole.  The issue of the growing disparity between the ‘classes’ in British society is a disturbing one. This indicates that while the wealthy gain in power and status, those who are poor have even less than they did before. Such a trend can serve as a source of disillusionment, anger and frustration on the part of those who see themselves getting less and less while the wealthy become even more so. This disparity cannot be addressed by looking only at the educational system. The system is a microcosm of society itself. It reflects the inequalities but not does address or change them. 

     Critical pedagogy is a movement which notes the disparities in society as reflected by the educational system. It is a philosophy and a movement which believes in disrupting the dominant discourse within the educational system in order to encourage students to challenge the status quo in their society. This may be one way in which to deal with this economic disparity in British society. Policymakers, especially those who influence educational decisions may need to re-think the educational system and ask themselves if this system can be used to disrupt and challenge the problems in British society as a whole. The fact is, these social inequalities cannot be met nor addressed simply within London’s urban schools. This is because these schools are a reflection of that inequality. 

     If policymakers truly want to change the urban schooling system, they must look at ways to address system inequality in England. One of the issues they must surely address is how to provide opportunities for people who are living in poverty and the opportunities to get out of that economically disadvantaged state. Second, they must certainly analyze and address why the economic disparity is growing in the country. The schools themselves cannot be the only aspect of society providing opportunities for those who are poor and/or disadvantaged. There must be opportunities for movement, change and growth in all aspects of society. 

A 2003 report by the NCSL was carried out by Wendy Keys, Caroline Sharp, Katy Greene and Hilary Grayson. The report is the result of a 12-year research project on urban schools and their challenges that was carried out between 1990 and 2002.  The definition of a ‘challenged school’ is stated as one “[…] where 25 per cent or fewer of the pupils achieved five or more grades A*– C in the GCSE and equivalent examinations in 1999, 2000, or both years. This definition can also be extended to primary schools, by using results from Key Stage Assessments”.  In addition, academic markers, the researchers point out the social indicators they used to determine what they would define as a challenged school. This included families who faced a significant number of social, psychological and economic problems. 

[…] many of the children were drawn from families on low incomes (with parents either in low-paid manual/service jobs or unemployed), in poor housing, and from families with little experience of education beyond compulsory schooling. In some cases, families were found to be exceptionally troubled. The communities served by the schools were often affected by elements of deprivation, such as bleak surroundings, poor facilities, poor health, dislocation and disaffection, and high levels of drug and alcohol abuse. Crime rates in the areas were often high (Keys, Sharp,

Greene and Grayson 2006). 

This definition of challenged represents a key point in this subject. The schools themselves are challenged because of the personal circumstances of many of those in the student population. In addition, they are often situated in poor neighbourhoods and have insufficient funding to address the multitude of problems they face. As a result, these schools are often ‘underachieving schools’ because of the personal difficulties for many of their students. According to these researchers, this can often lead to a cycle of underachievement and deprivation. 

The authors go on to point out that effective leadership in any school, whether it is poor and challenged or wealthy and successful, may have many of the same qualities. Leadership is about taking control of the situation and it is also about the ability to address the problems that exist in a very real and practical way. Good leaders are those who are able to adapt their style and maintain a constantly flexible attitude about what is required by teachers and students. They are also visionaries who are not afraid to lay down a plan and work towards very specific objectives and goals. Personality is also an important aspect of an effective leader and those who suit the challenged schools best may be a particular type of personality. “[…]headteachers best suited to the task of turning around a failing school were likely to have an animated, dynamic, charismatic approach. It was suggested that, to be effective, a headteacher’s leadership style needs to be attuned to the specific context experienced by a particular school” (Keys, Sharp, Greene and Grayson 2006). 

With respect to policymaking and leadership, these authors suggest that the first step is the ability to diagnose the problem.  There needs to be an accurate accounting of each school’s specific problems. While challenged schools may indeed share specific characteristics, each school must be viewed as unique and address the actual problems as opposed to those perceived and assumed. Once the specific problems are identified, then appropriate strategies can be adopted. The writers also point out that a key element may be that of the psychological approach taken by a headmaster. Specifically, they need to be able to motivate teachers and students and not adopt a sense of defeat or hopelessness. The school will take its cue from the headmaster and they need to be someone who can continue to be positive even in the face of the challenges they will undoubtedly face. “[…] staff (and pupils). Harris (2002), in her ten case studies of improving secondary schools, noted that a key concern for headteachers was one of maintaining staff morale and motivation. Staff self-development was vigorously promoted through in-service training, visits to other schools or peer support schemes” (Keys, Sharp, Greene and Grayson). 

These same authors point out that another characteristic of effective/good leadership is the ability to delegate appropriately and empower others to assume leadership roles as well. There are possibilities for students to assume roles as a mentor or volunteer, and/or teachers to develop/create programs and opportunities to take the lead in certain specific and appropriate situations. A good leader does not “have to do it all”, but they must be able to identify what needs to be done and who can do it most effectively. Effective leaders know how and when to delegate responsibilities and they do so accordingly. They are persons who are collaborative in style, set clear goals for everyone concerned, set a good example in the way they work, monitor the school’s progress and report to the appropriate authorities about both their successes and continued needs. 

Another specific concern for headmasters in challenged schools is the behavioural problems and issues presented by some of their students. Yet, they note that there the literature is sparse in terms of specific data on effective leadership strategies in these situations. They quote S.C. Carter who dealt with this issue in American schools. “When a school clearly teaches by example that self-control, self-reliance, and self-esteem anchored in achievement are a means to success that school’s own success inspires confidence, order, and discipline in its students”. 

The report also points out that school leadership must extend the mission of the school into the home. This essay has already pointed out the specific challenges that many families in poor circumstances must cope with. These families may become easily discouraged and are perhaps unwilling, or unable to see the ways in which education can help their children. The school must develop strategies for involving these families in undemanding yes positive ways. When the parents become involved and adopt a more positive attitude towards the school specifically and the education system in general, it is more likely that they will model appropriate attitudes and behaviour for their children. 

Policymakers must also adopt a more proactive stance towards such schools. They must engage in a continued and determined effort not to let these children fail. There are far too many disadvantaged children in the UK and if the funding, accommodations and support do not exist, the schools cannot hope to address these students’ needs. In addition, the authors suggest that such schools must embrace the widest possible support network in order to make the necessary changes. 

Sharp, Katy Greene and Hilary

[…] the most improving schools had been able to draw upon a wider range of relevant advice, assistance, support and consultancy than those that had made more limited progress[…]Types of external support mentioned in the publications we reviewed included: professional development programmes and/or courses; peer-learning strategies, including mentoring; external consultants; physical resources and funding; and support from LEAs. The final part of this section focuses on an article describing the support needs of special schools in difficulties. 

This brief review points out the multitude of challenges faced by urban schools and the contexts in which these challenges exist. It also provides some suggestions for the ways in which leadership and policymaking can address these problems/issues. As pointed out however, there is a systemic issue at stake here. While the schools themselves can address and deal with the problem, society as a whole in Britain needs to come to terms with the fact that poverty is increasing and the myriads of problems that accompany the state of living in poverty come with it.  Therefore, the British government and those in power need to make a serious and determined effort to change systemic social problems within the country. The fact is, until such wide scale changes are made, there will always be challenged, urban schools and there will always be a need to address these challenges with specific strategies that can adapt to changing and difficult circumstances. 

Globalization refers to the modern state of the world as it exists today mostly through “large-scale changes and trends” (Reilly, 2007, p.506).  Much like earlier eras were representative of events and circumstances of their time (i.e. Industrial Revolution, Depression, Cold War Era), our modern term encompasses a diffusion of economical, political, technological and social evolvements in today’s interchangeable and interdependently-structured global society.  While the term became mainstream during the past twenty years, the phenomena itself ties into “forces driving the world economy […] towards increased economic integration” (Bentley, 2006. p.1132). The economic components of globalization expanded world market trade and foreign investments, unrestrained “movement of capital, privatization of former state enterprises,” (Bentley, p.1132) and national deregulation practices (relaxed environmental and tax laws previously imposed on business organizations). This had the effect of creating a far more relaxed and lucrative international marketplace. 

One of the more unfortunate aspects of globalization is the ease with which human labor is acquired and moved across international boundaries. This has resulted in the devastating consequence of international human sex trafficking. The globalization process, especially the break up of the Soviet Union and the creation of dozens of small, unstable Eastern European countries has created millions of poor people who are eager to do anything for work. Millions of people are seeking to get out of these small, poor countries where they perceive (and perhaps rightly so) that there are no true opportunities for stable, ongoing work. In addition to the heads of families seeking work, so too are young people who have visions of living in cities like London, Paris, New York, and Los Angeles. Young girls are especially vulnerable when hear of (fake) opportunities to become models, waitresses, and actresses. Visions of being movie stars, or appearing on the covers of famous magazines dance in their heads, and it is all too easy for those criminals who run trafficking rings to entice them into their fold. “Human trafficking represents perhaps the worst form of labor exploitation and can be regarded as one of the dark sides of globalization” (Jones, Engstrom, & Hilliard, 2007, p. 107). 

The business of human trafficking has literally become one of the biggest profit-making enterprises in the world, second only to drug running. Young women and girls are the primary targets (although boys are used too on occasion) for prostitution, sweatshop/cheap labor, and domestic laborers. However, prostitution or sex slavery is the biggest enterprise of human trafficking in young women and girls. The numbers of girls and women trafficked is very difficult to analyze statistically because of the heinous ways in which they are taken. Many are abducted, enticed and sometimes even sold by poor families who are desperate for money. “Due to the criminal, secretive nature of human trafficking, victims are often hidden in brothels, homes, and businesses. Moreover, law enforcement, social workers, health care professionals, and other authorities rarely encounter victims of human trafficking” (Jones, Engstrom, & Hilliard, 2007, p. 108). Even when some victims do happen to escape or come into contact with law enforcement officials, they are skeptical of dealing with the law. Most of the girls and women who are trafficked come from countries where law enforcement is corrupt. Therefore they have an innate mistrust of law enforcement officials. “This hampers officials in their attempts to rescue victims and prosecute the criminals responsible. Those who are trafficked are among the most vulnerable and exploited individuals in the new global economy that spawned this phenomenon” (Jones, Engstrom, & Hilliard, 2007, p. 108).

There are numerous issues at stake in the problem of human sex trafficking. First, there are human rights issues, there is the need to make international human migration more humane and there is definitely a need to develop humane and sensitive rehabilitation programs for those women and girls who end up in shelters, emergency rooms, and mental health facilities. “By the late 1980’s, for example, human rights emerged as a principal theme of global politics” (Bentley, 2006, p.1155. Due to the expansion of international non-government organizations (i.e. United Nations, Greenpeace, World Trade Organization, World Food Bank, Human Rights Watch) global centralized intervention and authorities replacing Nation-focused approaches to solving complex modern issues evolved. However, a negative side effect of this global political scene is that more countries than ever became interdependent on each other. Trade routes that were previously closed (i.e. between the U.S. and Russia) opened up again, or for the first time. 

A primary issue over human sex trafficking has been the difficulty in creating a consensus over a definition. The United Nations has tried as have individual researchers and human rights groups intent on trying to solve this heinous problem. Part of the issue is that prostitution is already illegal (which also makes it difficult for those trafficked into prostitution to come forward to law enforcement authorities).  One definition which has been suggested reads as follows: 

Trafficking means all acts involved in the recruitment, transportation within or across borders, transfer, receipt, purchase, sale, or holding of a person involving the use of deception or coercion. Trafficking is manifested by the use or threat of force or the abuse of authority or debt-bondage. (Skolnik & Boontinand, 1999, p. 77).

As one author notes, human sex trafficking cannot be tackled as an issue of prostitution but one of human slavery. These women and girls do not enter into acts of sex with men (or women) of their own free will. They are enslaved and forced to do so by their captors. She argues that it is therefore imperative to view human sex trafficking as human slavery. “The victims have changed and the purposes have been expanded, but human trafficking is nothing more than a “contemporary manifestation of slavery” (McClain, 2007, 580). The McClain study points out that in fact prostitution is only one aspect of a very complicated issue. Young women and girls are not just trafficked out of Eastern Europe, Asia and Africa into Western countries such as the U.S., England and Canada, but the opposite is also true. There is a huge market economy for young, white girls in the developing countries. Criminals who do business in human sex trafficking also abduct girls from Western countries and force them into sexual slavery in countries where they have no rights. 

In many countries, such as Liberia, Sri Lanka, Ethiopia, and Zimbabwe, trafficking victims who are foreign to the destinations are found to be in violation of immigration laws, and the victims are not given the residency status necessary to allow them to testify against and protect themselves from their traffickers. (McClain, 2007, p. 582). 

An economic context of globalization is that there is a ‘push/pull’ effect on people. Many people who live in poor countries feel compelled to get out of their home environment. Thus, they are pushed out of their homes by the economics of poverty. The primary motive here is to move into a more economically sound environment where they can make money to send back to their families and hopefully bring them out of poverty. In effect they are pulled into another environment in the hopes of making money. Those who traffick in the sex industry prey on this very need. “…recruitment tools [offer] the promise of a better life and increased opportunity. Victims of trafficking, who are usually poor and often uneducated, are not in a position to discern beforehand that the promises of economic opportunity are, in fact, lies…” (Jones, Engstrom, & Hilliard, 2007, p. 111). The economic side of things is very important in the issue of human sex trafficking. The dirty fact is plain and simple, trafficking in human lives makes money. Some would suggest lots of money. According to one source the trafficking industry brings in anywhere from seven to ten billion dollars a year (McClain, 2007). Another researcher agrees that money is largely behind this horrific business. Globalization has polarized wealth in the world and driven out the middle class. Generally there are the wealthy and the poor (this includes the working poor). “Consider the less publicized ugly side of neoliberal globalization: disease, hunger, and poverty are intensifying for those living in countries marginalized by the global marketplace.  The polarization of wealth and income has widened the gap between rich and poor countries” (Weiss, 2000). In essence, one of the worst results of globalization has been turning women and girls’ bodies into commodities to be bought and sold on the international market. 

One of the unfortunate aspects of globalization is that massive (although often temporary) migration has become an integral part of the new means of production and the international economy. One area in the world where this is particularly so is Asia. More women seem to be seeking out work than men and they are leaving poor countries for the wealthier ones. This need for work creates some of the seeds for human sex trafficking. Another factor is that many of these women are not only poor but uneducated. Their knowledge of migration laws is either limited or nil. The women who move from one country to another often fall into the hands of so-called ‘agents’ who claim to be able to help. The agents are either working for the traffickers, or they are the traffickers. “In short, while female labor migration has existed for a long time, globalization has changed its characteristics. Poverty, unemployment, and lax labor policies all contribute to the growth of traffic in women” (Skolnik & Boontinand, 1999, p. 77). 

The techniques of human sex trafficking are as deplorable as the forced prostitution. In the McClain study, the author uncovered absolutely horrifying stories of young girls who were sold by husbands to make money, a girl sold by her aunt in order to get a better apartment, and fake boyfriends who sell girls to traffickers to make money for themselves. In each case the scenario is very similar and some of the girls are as young as thirteen. The girl/woman receives a fake passport in order to enter the country. Once she arrives, all of the documents are taken away. If the girl/woman goes to the authorities, they can be prosecuted for being in the country illegally. In many cases, the victims themselves are prosecuted and the criminals/traffickers go free. 

A myth about human sex trafficking is that the industry is controlled only by thugs and criminals of some underworld conspiracy. The problem that international law enforcement faces is that in some countries the police and other officials are part of the trafficking industry. The girls and women in these countries have no officials to appeal to. Once again, the hope of making more money and more profit makes these mens’ eyes gleam and the commodification of girls and women continues. “Police provide aid in the exploitation of children in Bolivia, border officials accept bribes to allow the trafficking of Haitian children into the Dominican Republic, and trafficking victims provide sexual services for politicians and civil servants in Montenegro” (McClain, 2007, p. 586). 

A distinct problem in the battle to try and stop human sex trafficking is the issue of the cultural contexts in which it takes place. The social constructs of sex, prostitution, women’s rights and even human rights are not always defined in the same way. Therefore, the way we understand these concepts in the United States is not necessarily going to translate into the same meaning in another country/culture. This presents a distinct challenge when trying to create both global definitions of human sex trafficking and global solutions. According to one researcher, the discourse on human rights can be complicated – : “…it is most powerful and effective, but also most ethically and politically problematic, when it provides a clear alternative discourse to local practices and norms that exploit and abuse women” (Hutchings, 2006, p. 390).

Some researchers suggest that in order to combat human sex trafficking, we must understand it in context of international human rights and women’s rights. With respect to girls and women who are trafficked into sexual slavery, human rights laws should apply. In other words, whether or not they have a proper passport, or they have engaged in prostitution is not the issue. The issue is that their rights as people have been abused and violated. In order to fully deal with human sex trafficking, we must focus on the violation of human rights and hold the traffickers/criminals responsible. 

In 1993, the U.N. included trafficking in its Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women and in 2000 the U.S. enacted the Trafficking Victims Protection Act. These two attempts to equate human sex trafficking with human rights are efforts in the right direction but they have failed to make a dent in the 21^st century’s version of modern slavery. In the global community, there must be a better and more thorough understanding of the different ways in which countries and cultures view and treat women. This is the first step in a global approach to combat human sex trafficking. All too often countries equate the women and girls with the trafficker themselves. We must separate the two and realize that one is a criminal and other is a person whose rights have been violated. 

A large part of the problem in dealing with human sex trafficking is that it involves children – literally very young girls (some as young as ten or eleven).  This paper acknowledges then that we must equate human sex trafficking with a form of child abuse. The fact that probably millions of young girls are being sold every year into sexual slavery is a difficult one to accept. People in general do not want to think of young girls being forced into prostitution. The thought is genuinely horrible. Yet, the more we talk and write about this issue the more we bring it into the light. This is necessary in order to deal with the problem. We must accept that on a global scale children (primarily young girls) are being bought and sold every day into sexual slavery and globalization is one of reasons it exists. “The globalization of the flow of information gave impetus to this impressive movement against the commercial child sex trade” (O’Grady, 2001, p. 124). O’Grady’s research raises an important and interesting aspect of human sex trafficking – the Internet. While one cannot blame technology as a piece of technology cannot be inherently evil, peoples’ use of the technology can be. In this case, the Internet makes it possible for those who engage in human sex trafficking to cross the global boundaries in ways never before thought possible. Chat rooms, email, message boards, and group forums make it possible for the traffickers to communicate internationally and organize their business in a way that makes it almost impossible to track them. “One could draw a partial causal relationship between the rapid expansion of globalization and the growth of child sex trade” (O’Grady, 2001, p. 130). 

In O’Grady’s opinion tourism and the Internet are largely responsible for the creation of human sex trafficking as such a large money-making industry. The tourism industry pressures various governments to ease their border controls. When these become more lax it is far easier to move people from one country to the next. Once someone is abducted it becomes all too easy for the traffickers to move them around from country to country. “In the past year alone, more than 10,000 Moldovan women, some as young as 12 years of age, are believed to have been kidnapped or coaxed to the West by the promise of jobs, only to be forced into prostitution” (O’Grady, 2001, p. 132).

The Internet also makes it possible for traffickers to conduct their business in relative anonymity. They can enter various forums or websites and ply their trade in cyberspace. Videos and photographs of young girls and women abound on the Internet and there is almost no way to stop the flow. The traffickers can close down one website and open up another in a matter of hours. The movement of people both physically and virtually in the global world is making it easier to engage in human sex trafficking. One of the areas where sex trafficking is flourishing despite international declarations and attention to the problem is Asia. “…the sex industry in Southeast Asia remains a hugely profitable and deeply entrenched enterprise that thrives on the exploitation of women and children” (Kuo, 2000, p. 42). Kuo also states; “While prostitution has an ancient history, the globalization of the sex trade is an unprecedented phenomenon” (Ibid). Kuo’s research states that a high percentage of those forced into prostitution in Asia are girls. Many of them come from poor, rural areas and are coerced into urban areas by traffickers who pay money to poor families. 

The country where it seems to thrive the most is Thailand. This is a country that has been broken apart by political instability and economic difficulties. Women in particular find it difficult to get any type of work and often prostitution is just the last resort. Once again officials in the country are implicated as being responsible for allowing the country’s flourishing sex industry to thrive. Even though prostitution and sex trafficking are illegal, officials take money to look the other way. “Often policemen and government officials are themselves customers wanting sexual favors; thus protecting and upholding the economic bases of prostitution and trafficking” (Kuo, 2000, p. 43).

Kuo suggests that globalization not only created the conditions for the transnationalization of sex slavery, it also promotes its continued prosperity. Although her article cites damaging evidence, the researcher herself is the first to admit that her facts are not new. The details of human sex trafficking have been appearing steadily in the international news since the late 1980’s. The point of saying this is to inform the reader that the issue of the globalization and human sex trafficking has been on the international agenda for almost twenty years with no solution in sight. This is because globalization itself is part of the problem. “…the globalization of the sex trade is legitimized by the developed world’s encouragement of Asia’s so-called tourism centers” (Kuo, 2000, p. 44).

Kuo’s study points out that one of the theoretical and political frameworks that is gaining some international notice is that of placing human sex trafficking within the context of the sexual exploitation of women. As mentioned earlier in this paper, the idea of this as a human rights issue may be one of the most effective ways of combating this problem, although the notion of human rights does not always translate transnationally. However, Kuo’s argument is that trafficking is another way of ‘putting women and girls in their place’ in a world economy in which everyone is struggling to make ends meet. Her argument further suggests that many men who engage in human sex trafficking believe that this is not a criminal activity because prostitution is an old institution and women need to be put in their place. When these men buy and sell women and girls they do so from a framework of a misogynist belief that women should stay out of the workplace unless they are somehow serving men.  “This “radical feminist” framework identifies sexual objectification as the basis of patriarchy, and hence prostitution and trafficking are seen in the same light as domestic violence, rape, sexual harassment, or pornography” (Kuo, 2000, p. 45). 

Human sex trafficking is continually being fed by the opportunities that globalization appears to offer. Whereas twenty or thirty years ago, people in the developing world might only know of opportunities in other countries by word of mouth, or if they had access to magazines or a movie theatre. Many did not. Today however, people can go into a café and get on the Internet, many people have televisions whereas they did not before and the world has opened up to developing countries in an unprecedented way. Many are leaving their countries hoping to live in a more ‘democratic’ country (as they perceive the term), and definitely for more social and economic opportunities. The break up of the Soviet Union has unfortunately created one of the biggest opportunities for human sex trafficking. Most of these small countries are politically unstable and poor. People are migrating constantly in the hope that they can lead a better life. A recent film, ‘Eastern Promises’ depicted the Russian mafia and its role in human sex trafficking. Young Eastern European girls are fed lies and leave their homes only to find themselves in sexual bondage. Unfortunately, too many poor women and girls still do not know the reality of trafficking and they too fall into its grip.

The strategy the traffickers often use is to charge a ‘small fee’ for getting the woman or girl out of their home country. The women and girls are given a fake passport (although they don’t know it) and then taken away. The small fee is of course a misnomer. Once they are out of the country, the women and girls are told they owe the traffickers a phenomenal amount of money they can’t possibly pay off. Their work as prostitutes is the only way to pay back the money the traffickers have told them they owe. One pernicious lie leads to another and the vulnerability of the poor, uneducated girls and women is used to the trafficker’s advantage. The criminals who engage in human sex trafficking and those in the drug industry feed off each other. Drug dealers are given access to young girls who are virgins and the traffickers buy drugs off the dealers. The girls and women are forced into drug addiction to keep them servile and in debt. 

Human sex trafficking and slave labor cannot be separated from each other. In face, they are one and the same. As two authors explain, they are generally beaten and raped repeatedly once they arrive at their destination. The women are so beaten down mentally and physically they agree to anything. In addition to owing money, becoming dependent on drugs, the women and girls are in such a fragile emotional state that any notion of leaving is terrifying to them. The traffickers also use violence against their families to keep them servile and dependent. The women and girls are terrified their families will be beaten or murdered if they try to escape. 

Another terrifying reality of human sex trafficking is that it is aiding in the spread of Hepatitis C and HIV/AIDS. Although the women and girls are given condoms, many of their clients refuse to use them. There is forced use of contraceptives, but the conditions the girls and women live in are tantamount to barbarism, and very few can afford to ever see a doctor. When clients refuse to use the condoms there is nothing the girls and women can do. Skolnik and Boontinand describe the conditions found in a brothel in a Kuala Lumpur: 

Obviously, the health of these women was severely compromised. The customers were given condoms but did not necessarily use them, and six of the women and girls were found to be HIV positive. Sometimes customers gave the women drugs to make them more submissive, and the pimps hit or flogged them if they were impolite or tried to refuse a customer. 

        (1999, p. 79)

In 2000 the U.N. adopted the Protocol on Trafficking Human Persons. Although 105 countries signed the protocol, there is an international acknowledgement that human sex trafficking which is a multi-billion dollar business continues to expand every year. The U.N. acknowledges that globalization has changed national and international migration patterns which makes human sex trafficking possible. In the 20th

century, changes in both supply and demand factors led to the feminization of migration

flows, and a sharp increase in the numbers and proportions of women and child migrants

moving, especially on a short-term or temporary basis in search of work.

In addition to the many reasons cited in this paper, human sex trafficking keeps thriving as armed conflicts around the world multiply. Countries that engage in armed conflicts or have unstable political regimes ignore many of the human rights conventions that have been adopted on an international scale. It is also an unfortunate reality that during these conflicts the most vulnerable in society are women, children and people with disabilities or illnesses. “…armed conflict and trafficking are linked in various ways. Traffickers often use routes through countries that have been engulfed by conflict, since border controls and normal policing are reduced” (Heyzer, 2002, p. 7).

Another aspect of armed conflict is that many of the social support systems that people usually rely on are either broken down or functioning in a weakened state. The notion of soldiers plundering and raping may sound like a cliché but it is not. That image is not just a myth from movies but the reality for many women and girls who lives in countries where armed conflicts are raging. These women and girls want to get out and it is all too easy to turn themselves over to someone who promises to help. 

This paper earlier stated that the market for young ‘pure girls’ is one of the driving forces of human sex trafficking. Many families in poor countries know this and sell these girls to keep their families fed. The growing divide between rich and poor fuels this problem. “Women are manipulated by consumerism and perversion of family values to fulfilfamily needs and consumption in the name of cultural tradition – duty, care, gratitude – even if it means being sold into prostitution” (Heyzer, 2002, p. 10). 

The women and girls who escape from human sex trafficking certainly do not face an easy life. For many of these women and girls, the thought of returning to their families is impossible. Many of those who have escaped face disgrace and shame back home and are ultimately shunned by their families. Some women and girls have no place else to go and end up returning to prostitution or commit suicide. The memories of their brutalization and imprisonment is often too much to bear and many commit suicide immediately upon their escape. 

The U.N. Office on Drugs and Crime is another international organization that is trying desperately to combat human sex trafficking. Their report states the following as some of the key reasons this industry is flourishing. “Porous borders, corrupt government officials, involvement of international organized criminal groups or networks, limited capacity of or commitment by immigration and law enforcement officers to control the borders…” (2006, p. 20). In their efforts to combat human sex trafficking the U.N. suggests that it is easier to understand it as a series of crimes committed by many inter-connected criminals and groups rather than by one large organization doing everything. This is the after-effect of globalization. The transnationalization of economies makes it possible for the traffickers to work together across international boundaries, thus making it extremely difficult for law enforcement to deal with them. One group or a small group of individuals entice the women and girls out of the country, while another will transport them and still another will take them someplace else. The network keeps on moving from one small group to another until they arrive at their final destination – the brothel.

However, even if the law enforcement takes down one group, they are literally only one small cog in the wheel. The larger network replaces them and keeps on going. The other problem is the ability of both the sending and receiving countries to enforce similar laws so that the law enforcement agencies can also work across the boundaries. That is harder to achieve than smuggling people across the borders from one country to the next. In essence it is easier to traffick people into sex slavery and much harder to stop the traffickers from succeeding. 

One route to success has been tracking the money trail. Some law enforcement agencies have found they can track who makes money when and where. Another rate of success has been found in training police in various countries to recognize the signs of trafficking both in the criminals and the victims and build support systems for the latter to encourage them to come forward. The fear of reprisals on their families and their emotional brutalization (plus language barriers) often makes it next to impossible to encourage victims to speak up.

Human sex trafficking is no doubt the most notorious crime that exists in the world today. Just as globalization made it possible, globalization ensures its survival. To combat this inhuman industry will require a multi-national effort that is both sincere and dedicated. This efforts needs to involve law enforcement, political pressure and support, controlling immigration and migration, enforcing the rights of children and women, understanding cultural norms and values around prostitution, a dedicated effort to fight organized crime, better border controls, international diplomacy, and an international support system for the victims so they can rebuild their lives when they get the chance.

References

Bentley, J, Ziegler, H (2006).  A Global Perspective on the Past, Volume II  (Third Edition).  New York: McGraw Hill.

Heyzer, N. (2002). Combating trafficking in women and children: A gender and human rights framework. Plenary Address. The Human Rights Challenge of Globalization: Asia-Pacific-US:The Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children. Honolulu, Hawaii, www.hawaii.edu/global/projects_activities/Trafficking/Noeleen.pdf. (accessed 03 May 2008). 

Hutchings, K.  (2006). Human rights and gender violence: Translating international law into local justice. Carnegie Council on Ethics and International Affairs, 20(3), 390-393. 

Jones, L., Engstrom, D. W., Hilliard, T., & Diaz, M.  (2007). Globalization and Human Trafficking. Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare, 34(2), 107-120.

Kuo, M. (2000). Asia’s dirty secret. Harvard International Review, 22(2), 42-48. 

McClain, T. R.  (2007). An ounce of prevention: improving the preventative measures of the trafficking victims protection act. Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational Law, 40(2), 579-612. 

O’Grady. R. (2001).  Eradicating pedophilia: Toward the humanization of society.  Journal of International Affairs, 55(1), 123-135. 

Reilly, K (2007).  Worlds of History:  A Comparative Reader (Volume II).  New York: 

Bedford/St.Martin’s.

Skolnik, L. & Boontinand, J. (1999). Traffic in women in Asia-Pacific. Forum for Applied Research and Public Policy, 14(1), 76-85. 

United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. Toolkit to combat trafficking in persons.  http://www.unodc.org/documents/human-trafficking/HT-toolkit-en.pdf. (accessed 03 May 2008). 

Weiss, R. P. (2000). Introduction to criminal justice and globalization at the new millennium. Social Justice, 27(2), 1-14.

Contributed by: Ilanna Sharon Mandel

Psychologists, sociologists and criminologists the world over have long debated the various causes of delinquency. This paper focuses on some of the causes the have been and are considered viable from a theoretical and practical perspective.  Some of these theorists point to the seminal experience of a childhood trauma especially child abuse, either of a physical or sexual nature.

 Others indicate that race, gender and socio-economic conditions (especially poverty) are of prime importance in a young person’s life. There is also the factor of peer influences. Young people are especially vulnerable in their early teen years and subject to a great deal of peer pressure to conform to certain values, norms and behaviors. Delinquency continues to be a salient topic today and we continue to search for answers to its causative factors.

INTRODUCTION

Juvenile delinquency continues to confound a broad range of behavioral specialists the world over. Some point to child abuse as a key factor while others suggest that child abuse alone is not a predictor of delinquency. There are some theorists who indicate that socio-economic conditions combined with peer influences can be an enormous factor in the development of delinquent behavior. This thesis will address some of the different theories and their attempts to explain why some young people fall into delinquent behavior.

Peer Influences 

Hoge, Andrews, and Leschied tested three hypotheses with respect to delinquent behavior. They worked with a sample of 338 youth in their study. The first theory centers on parent-child relationships, the second on peer influences and the third on attitudes towards authority. It is clear from the beginning of the article that the authors acknowledge that not one but a combination of factors are the strongest predictor of delinquent behavior. They note that familial relationships combined with an association with delinquent peers offers the highest predictor for delinquency (1994, p. 547). Although it might be tempting to assume that parental abuse of their children would be the conclusion here in terms of familial influence, the authors note this is not necessarily the case. There are parents who give poor directions to children, fail to structure their behavior and do not reward or punish appropriately. “…our prediction was that the highest levels of antisocial behavior would occur where poor attachment between parent and child was combined with poor controls.” (Hoge, Andrews, and Leschied, 1994, p. 547). 

Wong’s research focuses on the notion of social bonds as a means of encouraging delinquent behavior. She points out that young people who associate with groups or individuals pursuing positive goals and commitments have a far less chance of engaging in delinquent behavior. “In contrast, there are activities that lack long-term objectives, lack a sense of commitment and responsibility, and involve casual or volatile relationships. For example, activities such as smoking and drinking do not serve long-term objectives” (2005, p. 322).  Her theory suggests that the more time spent involved in behavior that has no sense of direction or long-term commitment to it (such as watching television), the greater the likelihood that one will begin to engage in delinquent behaviors. This is especially true when the people around you are encouraging the lack of long-term goals or commitments. 

Vitaro, Brendgen, and Tremblay support the theory that spending time with deviant friends exerts a great deal of pressure on a young person to adopt the same behaviors. “The Peer Influence/Socialization model (Elliott et al., 1985) proclaims that weak bonding to conventional peers leads to association with deviant friends, which in turn is responsible for initiation or aggravation of delinquent behaviors” (2002, p. 314). Even though this may be true, the authors also suggest that the presence of even one non-deviant friend may be able to mitigate some of the influence from friends who engage in deviant behavior. Each individual brings their own norms and values and the friendship is unique in that respect. “However, deviant peers also amplified the link between disruptive behaviors and later delinquency for early starters” (Vitaro, Brendgen, and Tremblay. 2002, p. 316.). These authors also found an interesting result from their study in that if a person’s best friend engages in delinquent behaviors, the person will have a tendency towards delinquent behaviors too even if they have friends who engage in positive behaviors. Their model suggests that the bond between best friends is often so strong it can resist other (often mitigating) influences (Vitaro, Brendgen, and Tremblay. 2002, p. 325).  In this study they found that while parental influence can also be effective, sometimes once the bond with a friend is established, it is difficult even for those youth with a strong parental attachment to break the cycle of delinquency (Ibid). 

Family Influence 

Vitaro, Brendgen, and Tremblay suggest that those theorists who believe in the peer influence model also tend to support the belief that family has a strong influence on the development of positive or delinquent behavior. They state:

Some researchers used measures such as parental control, discipline, or supervision (i.e., monitoring), whereas other researchers focused on the affective nature of the parent–child relationship (i.e., attachment, closeness, acceptance, and rejection). A number of studies examined the moderating role of each dimension separately with conflicting results 

(2002, p. 315). 

Matherne and Thomas note that delinquency is most definitely on the rise in America today. The number of youths who run away from home and the number of drop-outs are increasing every year. They agree that family influence is one of the predictors in the development of delinquent behavior. In fact, they go so far as to state that family influence can be much more powerful than the influence of one’s peers (2001, p. 670). This suggests that a positive family influence with strong emotional bonding and positive communication strategies can mitigate the influence of deviant peers in a young person’s life. They clarify this by stating that the family type is also extremely important and children/youth from non-traditional families (single parent, reconstituted) have a far greater chance of engaging in delinquent behavior than children/youth from traditional families. “For nontraditional families, there was a significant relationship between delinquency and cohesion” (Ibid). 

With respect to traditional versus non-traditional families, Matherne and Thomas go on to say that one of the reasons why children/youth from traditional families may be less likely to engage in delinquency is the presence of family resources. “With more resources, traditional families may provide a more balanced home environment and devote more time and energy to their children. For example, traditional families may allocate more time for family interaction, such as communication” (2002, p. 370). They also state that good parenting skills can also serve as a means to prevent juvenile delinquency (Ibid).  However, the authors also note that any conclusions from their study should be understood only within the context of research already conducted on the subject. They were limited to working with youth and parents from only one school. 

In terms of family influence, there may be some validity to the notion that non-traditional families have a more difficult time raising children. There is often the problem of being a single parent which means economic resources are stretched to the limit and the parent likely has far less time to spend with their children. A single parent also has the added pressure of trying to provide emotional support for all the children in addition to being the economic support. Reconstituted families can experience difficulties in the arena of communications and emotional support. Children may not relate well to a step-parent and vice versa. There may also be hard feelings around the issues of divorce and lack of, or limited access to a parent who is deeply missed.  These factors must surely be considered in terms of understanding the ways in which non-traditional families function. 

Some researchers suggest that just as effective parenting can have a positive influence on young people, so the opposite is true. Parents who are poor communicators, unable to establish strong emotional ties and/or provide little to no support for children risk seeing them engage in delinquent behavior. There is also the more extreme form of dysfunctional parenting with those who engage in illegal or criminal behavior. “In studies comparing them to demographically matched controls, children of substance abusers exhibit more behavioral and emotional problems, less socially adaptive behavior, higher rates of psychiatric disorder, and greater use of illicit drugs” (Keller, et al., 2002, p. 399).  

These same researchers suggest that there may be some similarities between children whose parents are substance abusers and children of divorced parents. While the parents themselves do not exhibit the same characteristics, the children do. The largest factor is the disruption in their lives. Children of divorced parents often face emotional conflicts regarding their allegiance to either one or both of their parents. They also face a difficulty in scheduling time with their parents and the adjustment to new influences when their biological parents remarry. The authors state the following: “…children and adolescents who experience family disturbances due to divorce and remarriage typically demonstrate higher levels of aggressive, defiant, and delinquent behavior. One explanation is that marital breakup produces conditions and consequences that have an adverse effect on children” (Keller, et al., 2002, p. 400).  

In addition to disruptions due to a restructuring of their family children/youth may also have to cope with different parenting styles. The step-parent may be far more strict than they are accustomed to which could cause an emotional backlash on the part of the child. The opposite could also be true. In order to compensate for disrupting their lives, a stepparent may try too hard to ‘be their friend’ rather than being another adult in the home. Their parenting style may be too loose and the child/youth will start to experience a lack of structure, or an easing of the rules. Either way could prove confusing and manifest itself in stress-related behavior. If one adds the component of substance abuse by either or both parents, the results could be disastrous for the children. “…effects from an unresolved initial divorce may be amplified by each succeeding disruption. Chronic family instability would presumably be harder to overcome for children of substance abusers who also confront multiple other risks” (Keller, et al., 2002, p. 401). 

While it is not surprising that research demonstrates the vulnerability for delinquent behavior by children and youth of parents who are substance abusers it is interesting that this same vulnerability exists for children and youth in other disruptive situations. According to the research parental disruption is one of the key predictors for delinquent behavior” (Keller, Catalano, Haggerty, and Fleming, 2002, p. 411).  These disruptions can be varied in nature from divorce, to parental depression (other serious illnesses), inconsistent parenting, constantly moving from one place to another, and at least one parent committing a crime (Ibid). The conclusion here is that lack of stability and consistency in the lives of children leaves them at great risk for delinquent behavior. Another interesting conclusion from their study was that children can handle adversity as long as they have at least one stable and consistent parent (Keller, et al., 2002, p. 414).  This provides at least some evidence that a loving, supportive, stable and consistent parent can serve as a mitigating factor in terms of their child developing delinquent behavior. 

Clark and Shields studied the effects of family communication on patterns of delinquency. As a general concept, effective family communications could easily be understood as having a positive influence on the children and adults. When parents are able to communicate with their children in compassionate, supportive and non-judgmental tones it does seem more likely that the children will feel understood and accepted. This pattern of communication is more likely to lead to a positive self-image and a higher sense of self-esteem and serve as a buffer against any negative, external factors. Some would suggest that it is not only the communication itself that is of high importance but the ‘focus’ of the communication (Clark and Shields, 1997, p. 81). 

Two communication styles were part of the study – open communication and problem communications. Both types of communication proved to be directly related to delinquent behavior. Those students who engaged in more open communication and perceived they had the ability to discuss problems with either or both parents were at significantly less risk for delinquent behavior. The study appears to support the assumption that it is not only discussing issues with one’s children that’s of paramount importance but the focus of the communication. Children need to believe and experience the ability to openly communicate with their parents. This provides an experiential support for them to realize that whatever they are experiencing in their lives (positive or negative); they have the ability to discuss this with their parents. “While some differences between open and problem communication and its relationship to delinquency exist, the results are clear in suggesting that “open lines of communication” between the parent and the child are important in the prevention of delinquency” (Clark and Shields, 1997, p. 87). 

Race as a Factor in Delinquent Behavior

There is probably no factor in peoples’ lives that is as deeply contested as that of the issue of race. The suggestion that race may be a factor in the development of delinquent behavior is one that must be considered carefully. There are researchers today who would suggest that race may not be the issue but rather racism is. Edward Pabon suggests that part of the problem in understanding race as a factor in juvenile delinquency is the way in which certain youths are perceived. “Politicians and the public view youth crime and violence through a prism of race and social class” (p.5).  He also points to statistics which demonstrate that unfortunately minority youth may be a small portion of the population but they represent the majority of youth involved in delinquent behavior. “Although minority youth constituted about 32% of the youth population in the country in 1995, they represented 68% of the juvenile population in secure detention…” (p. 6). 

Pabon states that while White people may feel concerned about the connection between race and crime, minority communities are even more worried. His research in the Hispanic communities demonstrates there is considerable concern over the rise in juvenile delinquency among Hispanic youth (1998, p. 7).

A great deal of the literature on race and juvenile suggests a connection between race and the juvenile justice system. The question that is often raised is; ‘does the juvenile justice system treat boys and girls of color in a less equitable manner than White boys and girls involved with the juvenile justice system? It is a difficult question to be sure. A detailed report from one California County (San Mateo) points out that there may be a disparity not in who is committing delinquent acts but in who is being detained for delinquent acts. This goes back to the original premise of this section in that it is extremely difficult to discuss race and delinquency without understanding the construct of race in the U.S. The issue of race is fraught with the history of slavery, the need to fight for civil rights and the continued perception of oppression of people of color in the U.S. 

One of the problems in determining race as a factor in delinquency is to understand the ways in which people of color feel in America today. Many people of color continue to feel as if they lack equality in general. Therefore, it is impossible to discuss race and delinquency without acknowledging this fact. The report on San Mateo County states clearly that youth of color are being detained at a much higher rate than White youth. The researchers also acknowledge the difficulty of tackling that particular subject.  “Measuring the disproportionate confinement of youth of color and discussing the impact of race and ethnicity in general are difficult due to the fact that measuring “race” is itself a discipline fraught with inconsistencies” (Morris, et al, 2003). .

This report goes on to suggest that it is possible youth of color are being detained at a higher rate not because they commit delinquent acts at a higher rate but because of police practices, ideas about youth of color and delinquency and also the neighborhoods where some youth of color live may be subject to greater scrutiny. “Researchers indicate that youth of color are “disadvantaged” in not having a commensurate level of access to mental health services and private mental health facilities as white youth, and that race is a factor in determining whether a juvenile is placed in a juvenile justice or in a mental health facility” (Morris, et al., 2003, p. 10).

The report states that it is not only African American youth who are over-represented in the juvenile system but also Latino and Hispanic youth. Some of the factors related to this over-representation are the fact that both Hispanic/Latino and African American youth still have higher rates of dropping out of school than their White peers, youth of color are being referred to probation in higher numbers, many youth of color are not successful in their standardized tests, and there is a problem with under-representation of teachers of color in schools. Children and youth of color continue to face considerable barriers in the U.S. and these barriers may be one of the reasons why they are over-represented in the juvenile court system. However, it is yet to be determined if they are actually engaging in delinquent acts at higher rates than their White peers. 

Self-Esteem as a Factor in Delinquent Behavior

Sociological Explanations

There is evidence in the research to demonstrate that low self-esteem may also be one of the contributing factors to delinquent behavior. However, one must be careful to understand how self-esteem factors into delinquent behavior for not all children and youth who experience low self-esteem necessarily fall into this pattern of behavior. One specific study points to the fact that Kaplan’s Self-Derogation Theory of Delinquency has been the primary tool used in the research on the connection between low self-esteem and delinquent behavior. One critique of the Kaplan theory notes that it is based primarily on the assumption that people want to feel good about themselves and will engage in behavior that will boost their self-esteem. 

When low self-esteem is experienced, individuals are motivated to take action to restore positive self-regard. This self-esteem motive is evident during adolescence, when most boys and girls develop favorable views of self within the confines of commitment to conventional reference groups (e.g., family relationships and mainstream friendship networks). (Mason, 2001, p. 84). 

The notion that people want and need to feel good about themselves is not particularly new. In Kaplan’s theory however, young people are emotionally vulnerable. When young people experience rejection by their peers, some react by seeking out deviant peers in order to be accepted by people their own age. “…boys and girls who are rejected by mainstream reference groups will experience lowered self-esteem, decreased commitment to the reference group, and increased motivation to establish deviant peer associations based on involvement in delinquent behavior” (Mason, 2001, p. 84). 

Kaplan’s theory also states that when individuals feel rejected by peers, there is an initial sense of elation when they are accepted by other young people their age even if they are engaging in delinquent behavior. The theory is predicated on the notion that young people are not necessarily seeking to engage in delinquent behavior but rather acceptance by their peers. Mason (2001) suggests that the research connecting self-esteem to delinquency has been weak and filled with some contradictions in its results. Yet, Mason is not ready to abandon the research. Instead, he seeks to modify the ways in which research is conducted. Mason (2001) suggests using latent growth curve modeling as a means of studying the connection between self-esteem and delinquent behavior. ). “Latent growth models are unique in that they incorporate information about the means, as well as the variances and covariances, of measured variables. These models, therefore, focus on both the group and individual levels of analysis” (p. 87).

Mason implemented a research study using latent growth curve modeling to support the hypothesis that participating in delinquent behavior will have the effect of enhancing a young person’s sense of self-esteem. “Sub group analyses revealed that delinquency was self-enhancing for boys initially low in self-esteem, but not for boys initially high in self-esteem. This is consistent with both theory and past research…” (Mason, 2001, p. 93).  Mason goes on to suggest that by using this research model, it is possible to support Kaplan’s theory “…that involvement in delinquency may be an adaptive or defensive response to feelings of low self-regard, which serves to elevate levels of global self-esteem” (Ibid). 

Mason suggests that this area of research requires more in-depth studies on the development of low self-esteem in young people. Mason also states that there are limitations to the study he conducted. The demographics of his study included only White boys from a higher socioeconomic status. The author admits that these demographics severely limit the applicability of this research, but it represents a start in the right direction. 

Trauma and Delinquency

The literature on self-esteem and delinquency may not be entirely conclusive; there is a plethora of research to demonstrate that traumatic incidents in the life of young people correlates with delinquent behavior. The National Child Traumatic Stress Network has conducted research on the relationship between traumatic events in a young person’s life and delinquent behavior. A sad and unfortunate reality of life in our modern world is that far too many children and young people are abused and traumatized every day. Some of these abuses are infrequence, whereas others occur on a regular basis. The abuse may vary in nature as physical, sexual, or psychological, or as a combination. There is no doubt that whatever the nature of the abuse; it can have long lasting and profound effects on a young person’s life. Another truly sad fact of childhood trauma is that it often involves someone the child has come to know and trust such as a parent, sibling, babysitter, relative, caregiver, or teacher. This violation of trust only multiplies the effect of the trauma or abuse.

“Numerous studies over the past 10 years have shown a clear relationship between youth victimization and a variety of problems in later life, including mental health problems, substance abuse, impaired social relationships, suicide, and delinquency” (Siegfried, Ko, & Kelley, 2004, p. 5).  The correlation between the abuse of young people and the development of serious problems in life is not a surprising one and may turn out to be one of the most significant factors in the development of delinquent behavior. One of the interesting facts that emerges from this piece of research is that the violence or trauma need not only take place in a young person’s home. The research suggests that even if a person lives in a violent neighborhood (sometimes referred to as a war zone), it is possible to be affected by the violence.  Another factor suggested by this research is that adolescents are capable of understanding concepts such as fairness, justice and appropriate behavior and inappropriate behavior. Children are not capable of understanding these concepts and so adolescents are affected differently by traumatic and abusive incidents (Siegfried, Ko, & Kelley, 2004). 

Data is available on the correlation between delinquent behavior and traumatic or abusive incidents through the National Survey of Adolescents (Kilpatrick et al., 2003b). The survey reveals that over 47% of boys who are sexually assaulted will go on to commit delinquent acts, almost 20% of girls who are sexually assaulted go on to commit delinquent acts, 46% of boys who have been physically assaulted commit delinquent acts, and almost 30% of girls who are physically assaulted will commit an act of delinquency  The research does indicate that boys and girls who have been neither physically or sexually assaulted also commit delinquent acts but at a significantly lower rate than their peers who have been assaulted in some manner (Siegfried, Ko, & Kelley, 2004).

The World Youth Report cites interesting evidence and research into the connection between trauma and violence in a child or young person’s life and committing acts of delinquency. The report notes that an interesting facet of delinquent behavior is that it is more commonly committed in groups rather than as individuals. While this does not prove the theory around peer influences, it does seem to support it to some degree. Individuals who seek acceptance among their peers and find it with delinquent peers tend to feel as if they belong and committing acts of delinquency is easier to do so within the framework of the group. “Statistical data in many countries show that delinquency is largely a group phenomenon; between two-thirds and three-quarters of all juvenile offences are committed by members of various groups. Even those juveniles who commit offences alone are likely to be associated with groups” (“Juvenile Delinquency, 2004, p. 191). This report also points out that it is now more imperative than ever to study the connections between trauma and delinquency as juvenile delinquency is on the rise in many countries. In addition to understanding why young people fall into delinquency, it is important for researchers to focus on how to prevent delinquency and how society can support and help to rehabilitate those who have fallen into delinquent behavior (“Juvenile Delinquency, 2004). 

The U.S. Department of Justice has been monitoring issues related to delinquency for many years now. A 2001 report indicated that rates of juvenile delinquency in the U.S. have gone down but there is still a significant amount of concern over this issue in society. This report states very clearly that maltreatment of children and youth can have a direct relationship with the development of delinquent behavior. The report states: “The prevalence of childhood abuse or neglect among delinquent and criminal populations is substantially greater than that in the general population” (Wiebush, Freitag, & Baird. 2001, p. 1). The report also raises an interesting question; ‘why is it that most children who are maltreated do not engage in delinquent behavior?’ Although the report indicates that rate of delinquency is on the decline, the rate of child abuse and neglect is on the rise  (Wiebush, Freitag, & Baird, 2001). 

This report goes on to state that one of key factors in the difference between those children who go on to engage in delinquent behavior are less likely to have received appropriate intervention in a timely manner. The problem of child abuse and neglect is a serious one and it is unlikely that agencies spread out over such a large country as the U.S. provide the same services. Each state has its own criteria for training, certification and employment. It is possible to suggest that one of the problems might be the availability of prevention and support services in the area where the child lives. The report states clearly that many agencies providing these kinds of services are “…overwhelmed by heavy workloads…” (Wiebush, Freitag, & Baird, 2001, p. 5). Given the fact that agencies can only do much within their mandate, it is also possible to assume that decision have to be made about which cases to intervene with and when it is possible for them to provide support. 

CONCLUSION

The factors which have been discussed in this paper are family influences, peer influences, race/ethnicity, self-esteem and the presence of trauma, abuse and/or violence in a child or youth’s life. The unfortunate reality is that many of these factors overlap. A young person who lives in a difficult environment may also have low self-esteem and face many barriers in life at a very young age. Researchers seem to agree on one thing and that is delinquent behavior is very complex and there is no one reason why some children/youth commit delinquent acts while others are able to marshal their resources and live a positive life. 

The research does not seem to address why some children/youth experience difficult families, trauma or abuse, low self-esteem and yet still resist engaging in delinquent behavior. There is a strong need to understand the reasons why these factors affect some children and not others. The research also suggests that there may be a racial bias in terms of youth of color. There may be assumptions that have been made over time about who commits delinquent acts and who engages in more appropriate behavior. The studies selected for this paper also indicate a strong need for further research. The continued presence of delinquent behavior among youth people is definitely a cause for concern and we must find ways to thoroughly understand it and prevent it. 

References

Clark, R. D., & Shields, G. (1997).  Family communication and delinquency. Adolescence, 32(125), 81-89.

Hoge, R. D., Andrews, D. A., & Leschied, A. W. (1994).  Tests of three hypotheses regarding the predictors of delinquency. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 22(5), 547-557. 

Keller, at al. (2002).  Parent figure transitions and delinquency and drug use among early adolescent children of substance abusers.  Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 28(3), 399-423.

Mason, A. (2001). Self-Esteem and delinquency revisited (again): A test of Kaplan’s self-derogation theory of delinquency using latent growth curve modeling. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 30(1), 83-101. 

Matherne, M, & Thomas, A. (2001). Family environment as a predictor of adolescent delinquency.  Adolescence, 36(144), 655-664. 

Morris, et al. (2003). “An assessment of disproportionate minority confinement in San Mateo County.” Prepared for the San Mateo Juvenile Justice & Delinquency Prevention Commission. 

http://www.co.sanmateo.ca.us/vgn/images/portal/cit_609/132205523NCCD_final_%20report.pdf  (accessed 28 April 2008). 

Pabon, E. (1998). Hispanic adolescent delinquency and the family: a discussion of sociocultural influences.  Adolescence, 33(132), 941-954. 

Siegfried, C. B., Ko, S. J., & Kelley, A. (2004). “Victimization and Juvenile Offending.” National Child Traumatic Stress Network. 

http://www.nctsnet.org/nctsn_assets/pdfs/edu_materials/victimization_juvenile_offending.pdf   (accessed 28 April 2008). 

Vitaro, F., Brendgen, M., & Tremblay, R. E. (2000).  Influence of deviant friends on delinquency: searching for moderator variables.  Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 28(4), 313-322.

Wiebush, R., Freitag, R., & Bair, C. (n.d.). “Preventing delinquency through improved child protection services.” U. S. Department of Justice. Office of Justice Programs, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.  http://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/ojjdp/187759.pdf delinquency2 (accessed 28 April 2008).

William, J. H., et al. (1999). Racial differences in risk factors for delinquency and substance use among adolescents. Social Work Research, 23(4), 241-263. 

World Youth Report. (2003).”Juvenile delinquency.”  http://www.un.org/esa/socdev/unyin/documents/ch07.pdf .

But as much as the depression should scare us, it’s the idea of not moving forward with important issues is what I really fear.  Would a sudden influx of poverty stop us from moving in a positive direction?  Issues like universal health care, and ending wars take on a new sense of urgency when dealing with millions of new additions to the lower class.  

I thought instead of writing a new blog post, I would like to some of my previous posts about financial issues and poverty.  I hope they’re useful.

Why Are the Working Class Going Poor?

What you should know about FairTax

Can FairTax stop the New Depression? 

Katrina Gill, a thirty-six year old nursing aid from Portland Oregon works the graveyard shift; taking care of twenty-eight elderly patients for nine dollars thirty-two cents an hour.  Katrina does not receive health insurance from her employer.  As a result, Katrina and her working husband pay a six-hundred-forty dollar a month insurance premium and have still managed to accumulate one-hundred-sixty-thousand dollars in medical debt for their son’s cancer treatment (BusinessWeek, 2004). 

In another part of the country; for only seven dollars fifty cents and hour, Joseph Schiraldi from New York, works as security for the Empire State Building, the largest terrorist target in the world.  Joseph has no pension, health care, or paid sick leave, which are typical amenities for non-union workers. And, in upper Manhattan; Christian age nine waits for his mom, Theresa Fabre at a library after school.  Theresa only makes eight dollars fifty cents an hour and can not afford day care.  Christian’s time at the library is spent with about forty other students whose working parents are just like Theresa; they can not afford day care (BusinessWeek, 2004).

Thirty-six year old Pittsburg resident, and father of three, Edward Plesniak lost his job making ten dollars sixty-eight cents hour, and has now been reduced to waxing floors for six dollars an hour.  Edward used to work a union job until the company went non-union, which according to the company was more economical for their bottom line (BusinessWeek, 2004).

People like Katrina Gill, Joseph Schiraldi, Theresa Fabre, and Edward Plesniak are just a small fraction of working individuals who are considered poor or working poor.  In 2004, an estimated twenty-eight million people, ages eighteen to sixty-four, made less than nine dollars four cent an hour, which averages just less than nineteen thousand a year; marking the federal poverty line for a family of four (BusinessWeek, 2004).

According to the Census Bureau, sixty-three percent of families with at least one or more workers are below the federal poverty line (BusinessWeek, 2004).  Working full time should guarantee families that they are not in poverty but the American people are facing greater problems that are forcing them right into scarcity.

Poverty, among other social problems facing America, seems like a never ending vicious cycle; with very little light at the end of the tunnel. The problem with individuals who are considered working poor is not that these individuals are lazy and do not want to work but rather a rigid economy that is becoming more stringent with its resources. In 2004, twenty percent of America’s poorest workers only recieved a tax break of two-hundred-fifty dollars, which is not even two percent of their sixteen-thousand-six hundred dollar annual income and the wealthiest one percent of American’s will receive a tax cut of nearly seven percent, which is almost five times the annual income of the poorest working citizen (Claxton & Hansen, 2004). In addition, Bush’s tax breaks for the wealthiest ten percent will total about one-hundred-forty-eight billion dollars alone (Claxton & Hansen, 2004).  That is almost seventy-six billion more than the government pays for job training, college Pell grants, public housing, low-income rental subsidies, child care, insurance for low-income children, low-income energy assistance, and welfare (Claxton & Hansen, 2004).

Continued on next page….

[Author: Rebecca Linhart, Title of Paper © 2008] Do Not Copy Disclaimer

Sudan, located in northeast Africa, is the largest country on the continent and is compact in shape. It occupies an area 967,494 sq miles and is approximately one-fourth the size of the United States. Some of its neighboring countries are Chad on the west, Egypt to the north, Ethiopia on the east, and Kenya, Uganda, and Democratic Republic of the Congo to the south. The Red Sea accounts for about 500 miles of the eastern coast. It is traversed from north to south by the Nile River, all of whose tributaries are either partly or entirely within its borders. The terrain is generally flat, featureless plain; the arid Nubian Desert dominates the northern region, compared to the tropical climate and mountains found in the south.

According to the U.S. state website “Sudan’s population is one of the most diverse on the African continent. There are two distinct major cultures–”Arab” and black African–with hundreds of ethnic and tribal subdivisions and language groups, which make effective collaboration among them a major political challenge.” The current population is 39,379,358 with Sunni Muslims representing 70% and residing primarily in the northern states. The southern states account for roughly 30% of Sudan’s population and  consists of black Africans practicing tribal Animist religions and a small segment of Christians. Because of famine, civil wars, and religious persecution the forced migration of Sudanese trying to escape has effected every border state in the region.

The 20th century saw the growth of Sudanese nationalism as a centripetal force, and in 1953 Egypt and Britain granted Sudan self-government. Independence was proclaimed on January 1, 1956. Since independence, Sudan has been ruled by a series of unstable unitary parliamentary governments and military regimes. Under Major General Gaafar Mohamed Nimeiri, Sudan instituted fundamentalist Islamic law in 1983. This acted as a centrifugal force and exacerbated the rift between the Arab north, the seat of the government, and the black African animists and Christians in the south. Differences in language, religion, ethnicity, and political power erupted in an unending civil war between government forces, strongly influenced by the National Islamic Front and the southern rebels, whose most influential faction is the Sudan People’s Liberation Army.

In 2005 a provisional government was established when the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) was signed. The Peace Agreement ended the civil war that had lasted for two decades and gave roughly half of Sudan’s oil wealth to the south, as well as nearly complete autonomy and the right to secede after six years. Although the rift between north and south has quieted since the CPA, inter-tribal abductions and fighting continue in Southern Sudan.

My recommendation to solve the ongoing problems in Sudan are tri-fold. First, allow the southern part to secede from the north; that should isolate the conflict to the south. Secondly, education of the people. Currently Sudan mandates 8 years of compulsory education, but only reports a 35-40% attendance rate. The people need something to unify them across ethnic boundaries and community public schools could do that. The schools would not only improve the literacy, but educate the public on birth control and new farming techniques to reduce the risk of famine. Finally, public works projects need to be a priority. Building schools, water irrigation systems and medical facilities would create jobs, force the diverse population of Sudan to work together, and would improve the health of the public. Currently the U.S. CIA website ranks Sudan risk of major infectious diseases as “very high”. Much of the risk could be minimized by making clean water more easily accessible.

For a look into what life is really like in Sudan, check out these amazing videos taken by VBS.TV:

This is a guest post written by Elizabeth Rathgeber